Comparative Psychology: Definition, Examples & Key Terms

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Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of human and animal behavior and mental processes.

It places a specific emphasis on identifying common patterns between animals and humans that can be reveal the evolutionary influences on our behaviors.

Driven by a mix of research from behavioral biology, evolutionary trends, and cognition, it looks for similarities and differences in cognitive-behavioral aspects among humans and various species of animals (Gomez, 2022).

Comparative psychology is valuable inasmuch as it provides insights into human behavior and mental processes by exploring the evolutionary realities that shape these behaviors.

History of Comparative Psychology

The phrase comparative psychology was first used in 1861 (Flourens, 1861). Soon after, the field of comparative psychology began in earnest, propelled significantly by “On the Origin of Species” by Charles Darwin in 1859.

Darwin’s groundbreaking work introduced the concept of natural selection, which sparked a newfound interest in the scientific community to understand the evolutionary underpinnings of behavior.

In turn, this led to the inception of comparative psychology as a distinct branch of psychology (Saugstad, 2018).

George Romanes, for example, subsequently argued that animals possess a “rudimentary human mind”.

Behaviorism’s Influence

At the turn of the 20th century, classical conditioning and operant conditioning began to become central theories in psychology. Ivan Pavlov began to demonstrate how his dog could learn to associate bells with food, and that shortly also translated to human learning theories.

Similarly, John B. Watson emerged as a leading figure in the history of psychology, as well as in this field. Watson, who was a significant contributor to the development of behaviorism, emphasized the need for psychologists to focus on observable behaviors rather than internal mental states.

Watson’s seminal work revolves heavily around the idea of learning processes and their similarities in different animals, laying much of the groundwork for later research in comparative psychology (Watson, 2021). Watson, for example, taught a pigeon to play the piano!

Similarly, Harry F. Harlow studied maternal deprivation in rhesus monkeys, demonstrating how they have strong similarities with human infants.

Contemporary Progress

As the field evolved through the 20th century, researchers slowly started to integrate more sophisticated methodologies and theoretical frameworks. They applied a spectrum of experimental approaches to explore behavioral patterns across a broader range of species. This evolution led to a more nuanced understanding of animal cognition and behavior (Marston & Maple, 2016).

In recent years, our knowledge on this topic has continued to deepen, with a resurgence of comparative studies in areas such as cognition and psychopathology, driving us towards a more comprehensive understanding of the human mind and behavior (Papini, 2020).

Key Concepts in Comparative Psychology

• Ethology: Ethology is the biological study of animal behavior in their natural environment. In comparative psychology, researchers use ethological approaches to understand how behavior relates to the animal’s natural environments, and those behavioral adaptations can indicate the animal’s evolutionary history (Olmstead & Kuhlmeier, 2015).
• Innate Behaviors: Innate behaviors refer to the instinctual, automatic responses that are independent of prior experience or learning. Comparative psychologists explore innate behaviors across diverse species to gain insights into how such behaviors have been shaped by natural selection and how they compare to learned behaviors (Weiss, 2018).
• Learning and Cognition: Learning and cognition cover the various processes of acquiring, organizing, using, and retaining knowledge. Researchers in comparative psychology study these processes across different species, with a strong emphasis on understanding the evolutionary advantages of particular cognitive skills and learning capacities (Papini, 2020).
• Social Behaviors and Communication: Social behaviors and communication involve interactions between individuals, ranging from competition, cooperation, conflict to exchanges of information. Comparative psychology applies this concept by studying different species’ social and communication behaviors, thereby revealing patterns that highlight shared evolutionary pressures and constraints (Gomez, 2022).
• Problem Solving and Tool Use: The study of problem solving and tool use involves observing how animals manipulate their environment to overcome obstacles, often through innovative methods. In comparative psychology, such investigations help us understand the cognitive capabilities, indicating the level of mental flexibility and intelligence across species (Marston & Maple, 2016).
• Cross-species Comparisons: Cross-species comparisons involve contrasting and comparing behaviors, cognitive abilities, and other psychological attributes across different animal species. Comparative psychologists use cross-species comparisons to better understand the evolutionary origins of certain behaviors or attributes and to elucidate why they persist in contemporary species (Papini, 2020).
• Evolutionary Psychology: Evolutionary psychology is a perspective that applies principles of evolutionary biology, including natural selection and adaptation, to understand the human mind. Comparative psychologists use principles from evolutionary psychology to hypothesize and experiment on behaviors observed in animals, drawing comparisons on how those behaviors are similar, different, and why (Saugstad, 2018).
• Animal Emotions and Consciousness: Exploring animal emotions and consciousness implies interpreting the subjective experiences of non-human animals. Comparative psychologists examine these aspects to discern parallels between human emotions and animal responses, prompting a broader discussion of consciousness and emotional expression across species (Marston & Maple, 2016).
• Sensory Perception Across Species: Examining sensory perception across species uncovers how different animals perceive their world. In comparative psychology, such investigations provide insight into the diversity of sensory modalities among various species and often highlight unique adaptions to specific environmental challenges (Olmstead & Kuhlmeier, 2015).
• Animal Culture and Tradition: The study of animal culture and tradition involves observing and documenting learned behaviors that are passed down through generations within animal groups. Comparative psychologists pay attention to these behaviors to enhance our understanding of social learning, cultural dissemination, and the evolution of customs in different species (Gomez, 2022).

2. Controlled Experiments
Controlled experiments refer to research methods where all variables, except the one under investigation, are kept constant or ‘controlled. The purpose of this method is to ascertain whether the variable under study directly impacts the result. In comparative psychology, controlled experiments allow researchers to establish causal relationships, understanding the effect one factor, such as environmental change or a specific stimulus, has on the behavior or cognitive abilities of different species (Marston & Maple, 2016).

3. Cross-species Comparisons
Cross-species comparisons involve contrasting and comparing behaviors, cognitive abilities, and other psychological attributes across different animal species. This method helps in identifying evolutionary trends in behavior, cognition, and related attributes. In comparative psychology, cross-species comparisons are fundamental. They shed light on the evolutionary origins of certain behaviors, cognitive skills, or traits, highlighting core universalities and unique species-specific adaptations (Papini, 2020).

These issues are detailed below:

Strengths of Comparative Psychology:

• Diversity: Comparative psychology involves studying a wide range of species beyond humans (Gomez, 2022). This breadth allows researchers to unveil generalized principles about behavior, cognition, and brain function.
• Evolutionary Insights: By analyzing behaviors across various species, comparative psychology provides crucial insights into the evolutionary aspects of behavior and cognition (Watson, 2021).
• Improved Welfare: The principles derived from comparative psychology studies can enhance the well-being and care standards of both wild and captive animals (Marston & Maple, 2016).

Weaknesses of Comparative Psychology:

• Translation Limitations: While animals provide an efficient research model, extrapolating findings from animal research to human behavior can be challenging and potentially misleading due to biological and cognitive differences (Olmstead & Kuhlmeier, 2015).
• Limited in Scope: Some traits or behaviors unique to certain species or individual organisms may not be easily compared or may be completely unmatched during cross-species comparisons (Papini, 2020).

Criticisms of Comparative Psychology:

• Anthropomorphism: Critics argue that comparative psychology often falls into the trap of anthropomorphism—attributing human thoughts, feelings, and intentions to animals (Saugstad, 2018).
• Lack of Ethological Focus: Some critics argue that by placing a high emphasis on laboratory studies, comparative psychology may overlook valuable ethological context, thereby limiting the comprehensive understanding of animal behavior in their natural environments (Weiss, 2018).

➡️ References and Further Reading

References

Abramson C. I., McCarthy W. N. IV. (2022). The psychic life of micro-organisms: A study in experimental psychology, A review of the book by Alfred Binet. Int. J Comp. Psychol. 35. Retrieved from: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/87x6w5d7

Abramson, C. (2023). The origin of the phrase comparative psychology: an historical overview. Frontiers in Psychology.

Flourens P. (1861). De la raison du genie et de la folie. Paris: Garnier frères.

Gomez, T. (Ed.). (2022). Comparative Psychology: Evolution and Development of Behavior. Murphy & Moore Publishing.

Krupenye, C., & Call, J. (2019). Theory of mind in animals: Current and future directions. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 10(6). Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1503

Marston, D. C., & Maple, T. L. (2016). Comparative Psychology for Clinical Psychologists and Therapists: What Animal Behavior Can Tell Us about Human Psychology. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN: 9781784501617

Olmstead, M. C., & Kuhlmeier, V. A. (2015). Comparative Cognition. Cambridge University Press.

Papini, M. R. (2020). Comparative Psychology: Evolution and Development of Brain and Behavior. Taylor & Francis Group.

Saugstad, P. (2018). A History of Modern Psychology. Cambridge University Press.

Watson, J. B. (2021). Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology. Legare Street Press.

Weinland, D. F. (1858). A method of comparative animal psychology. Proc.

Weiss, B. A. (2018). Natural Behavior: The Evolution of Behavior in Humans and Animals Using Comparative Psychology and Behavioral Biology. Universal Publishers.