In behavioral psychology, stimulus control refers to a situation where the presence or absence of a stimulus can control the behavior of a person or animal. In other words, the stimulus is in control.
Stimulus control is considered to be present when a person or animal responds one way in the presence of the stimulus and another way in its absence (Gureghian, 2013; Honig, Fetterman & Honig, 2018).
This may be a conscious response (in operant conditioning) or subconscious response (in classical conditioning) to the stimulus.
Importantly, stimulus control can be trained through behavioral conditioning processes including association, reward, and punishment.
Stimulus Control Examples
1. The School Bell
Stimulus: School Bell
Response in Presence: Changing Tasks
Type: Operant Conditioning
In a classroom, a teacher uses a bell to signal the end of an activity and the beginning of another. The students learn to associate the sound of the bell with changing activities. Over time, as soon as the bell rings, the students automatically stop one task and start another. This is an example of stimulus control, where the bell serves as the stimulus influencing the students’ behavior.
2. The Traffic Light
Stimulus: Traffic Light Colors
Response in Presence: Stop, Slow Down, or Go
Type: Operant Conditioning
At intersections, drivers observe traffic lights changing colors: red means stop, yellow means slow down, and green means go. Drivers learn to associate each color with the corresponding action to avoid accidents and penalties. Over time, the color of the traffic light automatically triggers the appropriate response from the driver. This demonstrates stimulus control, with the traffic light colors serving as stimuli that influence drivers’ behavior.
3. The Smell of Food
Stimulus: Smell of Food
Response in Presence: Feeling Hungry
Type: Classical Conditioning
When a person smells their favorite food cooking, they may start to feel hungry and salivate, even if they weren’t hungry before. This happens because they have learned to associate the smell of food with eating. Over time, merely smelling food can trigger feelings of hunger. This is an example of stimulus control, where the smell of food acts as a stimulus to induce hunger.
4. The Phone Notification
Stimulus: Phone Notification Sound
Response in Presence: Checking the Phone
Type: Operant Conditioning
People often set different notification sounds on their phones for messages, emails, or app alerts. They learn to associate a specific sound with a type of notification, leading to the automatic response of checking the phone when they hear that sound. This learned association between the notification sound and the act of checking the phone is an example of stimulus control, where the sound serves as the stimulus prompting the behavior.
5. The Dentist Drill Sound
Stimulus: Sound of Dentist’s Drill
Response in Presence: Anxiety or Fear
Type: Classical Conditioning
Many people feel anxious or fearful when they hear the sound of a dentist’s drill, as they associate it with potentially painful dental procedures. Over time, just hearing the drill sound can trigger feelings of discomfort, even outside the dental office. This is an example of stimulus control, where the sound of the drill acts as a stimulus to elicit anxiety or fear.
6. The Vibrating Fitness Tracker
Stimulus: Fitness Tracker Vibration
Response in Presence: Getting Up and Moving
Type: Operant Conditioning
Individuals wearing fitness trackers often set them to vibrate after a period of inactivity as a reminder to get up and move. The wearer learns to associate the vibration with the need to engage in physical activity. Over time, feeling the vibration automatically prompts the individual to stand and walk around. This is an example of stimulus control, where the vibration serves as the stimulus influencing the wearer’s behavior.
7. The Sunset
Stimulus: Sunset
Response in Presence: Feeling Relaxed
Type: Classical Conditioning
Observing a sunset can make people feel relaxed and peaceful, as they often associate it with the end of the day and a time to unwind. Over time, simply seeing the sunset can automatically trigger feelings of relaxation. This is an example of stimulus control, where the visual cue of the sunset serves as a stimulus to induce a state of relaxation.
8. The Alarm Clock
Stimulus: Alarm Clock Sound
Response in Presence: Waking Up
Type: Operant Conditioning
People use alarm clocks to wake up at a specific time, and they learn to associate the sound of the alarm with the need to wake up and start the day. Over time, the sound of the alarm clock automatically triggers the response of waking up, even if the individual is in a deep sleep. This is an example of stimulus control, where the alarm sound serves as the stimulus prompting the waking behavior.
9. The Sight of a Police Car
Stimulus: Sight of a Police Car
Response in Presence: Slowing Down
Type: Operant Conditioning
Drivers often slow down when they see a police car, as they associate it with the enforcement of traffic laws and the potential for receiving a ticket. Over time, merely spotting a police car can automatically lead to more cautious driving. This is an example of stimulus control, where the sight of a police car serves as a stimulus influencing drivers’ behavior.
10. The Oven Timer
Stimulus: Oven Timer Beeping
Response in Presence: Checking the Oven
Type: Operant Conditioning
When baking or cooking, people set an oven timer and respond to its beep by checking or removing the food. Over time, the sound of the timer automatically prompts the cook to attend to the oven. This is an example of stimulus control, where the oven timer beep serves as the stimulus influencing the cook’s behavior.
11. The Dark Clouds
Stimulus: Dark Clouds in the Sky
Response in Presence: Seeking Shelter
Type: Classical Conditioning
People often associate dark clouds with impending rain and respond by seeking shelter or grabbing an umbrella. Over time, the sight of dark clouds can automatically trigger preparations for rain. This is an example of stimulus control, where the appearance of dark clouds serves as a stimulus to induce protective behavior.
12. The Baby’s Cry
Stimulus: Baby’s Cry
Response in Presence: Attending to the Baby
Type: Operant Conditioning
Parents and caregivers associate a baby’s cry with discomfort or need and respond by attending to the baby. Over time, hearing a baby’s cry automatically triggers caregiving behaviors. This is an example of stimulus control, where the baby’s cry serves as the stimulus prompting attention and care.
13. The Handshake
Stimulus: Extended Hand
Response in Presence: Offering Hand in Return
Type: Classical Conditioning
People often associate an extended hand with a greeting and respond by offering their hand in return for a handshake. Over time, seeing an extended hand automatically triggers the response of extending one’s own hand. This is an example of stimulus control, where the sight of an extended hand serves as a stimulus for a reciprocal greeting.
14. The Smell of Coffee
Stimulus: Smell of Coffee
Response in Presence: Feeling Alert
Type: Classical Conditioning
Many people associate the smell of coffee with waking up and feeling alert. Over time, simply smelling coffee can make someone feel more awake and alert. This is an example of stimulus control, where the aroma of coffee serves as a stimulus to induce alertness.
15. The Flashing Crosswalk Signal
Stimulus: Flashing Crosswalk Signal
Response in Presence: Stopping or Slowing Down
Type: Operant Conditioning
Pedestrians and drivers learn to associate a flashing crosswalk signal with the need to stop or slow down. Over time, seeing the flashing signal automatically triggers caution and a change in pace. This is an example of stimulus control, where the flashing crosswalk signal serves as the stimulus influencing behavior.
16. The Ringing Doorbell
Stimulus: Ringing Doorbell
Response in Presence: Answering the Door
Type: Operant Conditioning
People learn to associate the sound of a ringing doorbell with someone being at the door and respond by answering it. Over time, the sound of the doorbell automatically prompts individuals to go and open the door. This is an example of stimulus control, where the ringing doorbell serves as the stimulus prompting the response.
17. The Chill in the Air
Stimulus: Chill in the Air
Response in Presence: Putting on Warmer Clothes
Type: Classical Conditioning
People often associate a chill in the air with a drop in temperature and respond by putting on warmer clothes. Over time, feeling a chill can automatically trigger the behavior of dressing more warmly. This is an example of stimulus control, where the sensation of cold serves as a stimulus to adjust clothing.
18. The Fire Alarm
Stimulus: Sound of Fire Alarm
Response in Presence: Evacuating the Building
Type: Operant Conditioning
People are trained to associate the sound of a fire alarm with a potential fire hazard and respond by evacuating the building. Over time, hearing the fire alarm automatically triggers urgent evacuation. This is an example of stimulus control, where the fire alarm sound serves as the stimulus prompting immediate action.
19. The Full Trash Bin
Stimulus: Full Trash Bin
Response in Presence: Taking Out the Trash
Type: Operant Conditioning
Individuals learn to associate a full trash bin with the need to dispose of waste and respond by taking out the trash. Over time, seeing a full trash bin automatically triggers the behavior of waste disposal. This is an example of stimulus control, where the sight of a full bin serves as the stimulus influencing behavior.
20. The Yawning Friend
Stimulus: Seeing Someone Yawn
Response in Presence: Yawning
Type: Classical Conditioning
People often yawn in response to seeing someone else yawn, as yawning is a contagious behavior. Over time, witnessing a yawn can automatically trigger a yawn in response. This is an example of stimulus control, where observing someone yawn serves as a stimulus to induce yawning.
21. The Email Notification
Stimulus: Email Notification Icon
Response in Presence: Checking Email
Type: Operant Conditioning
Users learn to associate the appearance of an email notification icon with incoming messages and respond by checking their email. Over time, seeing the notification icon automatically triggers the action of opening the email app. This is an example of stimulus control, where the notification icon serves as the stimulus prompting the response.
22. The Growling Stomach
Stimulus: Stomach Growling
Response in Presence: Eating
Type: Classical Conditioning
Individuals associate the sensation of a growling stomach with hunger and respond by seeking food. Over time, feeling the stomach growl can automatically trigger eating behavior. This is an example of stimulus control, where the physical sensation serves as a stimulus to induce eating.
23. The Red Pen
Stimulus: Teacher Using a Red Pen
Response in Presence: Paying Attention to Corrections
Type: Operant Conditioning
Students learn to associate a teacher using a red pen with corrections and mistakes on their work and respond by paying closer attention to the marked areas. Over time, seeing the red ink automatically triggers a focus on errors. This is an example of stimulus control, where the red pen serves as the stimulus influencing attention.
24. The Looming Deadline
Stimulus: Approaching Deadline
Response in Presence: Working More Intensely
Type: Operant Conditioning
People often associate an approaching deadline with the need to complete tasks and respond by working more intensely. Over time, awareness of a looming deadline automatically triggers increased work effort. This is an example of stimulus control, where the perception of time constraint serves as the stimulus influencing work behavior.
25. The Cracked Pavement
Stimulus: Cracked Pavement
Response in Presence: Stepping Over or Around
Type: Operant Conditioning
Pedestrians learn to associate cracked or uneven pavement with the risk of tripping and respond by stepping over or around it. Over time, spotting cracked pavement automatically triggers cautious walking. This is an example of stimulus control, where the sight of an irregular surface serves as the stimulus influencing walking behavior.
Operant Conditioning Methods of Stimulus Control
Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of behavior, and stimulus control in this context is achieved when a behavior is modified by the presence or absence of an antecedent stimulus. Here are five methods of stimulus control in operant conditioning:
1. Positive Reinforcement: This method increases the likelihood of a behavior by presenting a rewarding stimulus following the desired behavior.
- Stimulus: Reward or positive outcome.
- Response: Increase in the likelihood of a behavior.
- Example of Positive Reinforcement: Giving a child a candy for cleaning their room encourages them to clean regularly.
2. Negative Reinforcement: This technique increases the likelihood of a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus following the desired behavior.
- Stimulus: Removal of an aversive stimulus.
- Response: Increase in the likelihood of a behavior.
- Example of Negative Reinforcement: Turning off a loud alarm by getting out of bed reinforces waking up on time.
3. Positive Punishment: This approach decreases the likelihood of a behavior by introducing an aversive stimulus following the undesired behavior.
- Stimulus: Introduction of an aversive stimulus.
- Response: Decrease in the likelihood of a behavior.
- Example: Receiving a speeding ticket discourages driving over the speed limit.
4. Negative Punishment: This method decreases the likelihood of a behavior by removing a rewarding stimulus following the undesired behavior.
- Stimulus: Removal of a positive stimulus.
- Response: Decrease in the likelihood of a behavior.
- Example of Negative Punishment: Taking away a child’s video game for not completing homework discourages neglecting responsibilities.
These methods illustrate how manipulating consequences, through the addition or removal of stimuli, can control and modify behavior in operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning Methods of Stimulus Control
In classical conditioning, stimulus control is achieved when a conditioned stimulus (CS) comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR) as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Here are five methods or aspects of stimulus control in classical conditioning:
1. Acquisition: This method involves the initial learning phase where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
- Stimulus: Pairing of neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus.
- Response: Elicitation of conditioned response.
- Example of Classical Conditioning: A dog learning to salivate (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus) when it is consistently paired with food (unconditioned stimulus).
2. Extinction: This occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, leading to a decrease in the conditioned response.
- Stimulus: Presentation of conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus.
- Response: Decrease in the conditioned response.
- Example of Extinction: If the bell rings repeatedly without presenting food, the dog will eventually stop salivating at the sound of the bell.
3. Generalization: This occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also elicit the conditioned response, even though they have not been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
- Stimulus: Presentation of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
- Response: Elicitation of conditioned response.
- Example of Generalization: The dog might start salivating at sounds similar to the bell, even if they have never been paired with food.
4. Discrimination: This is the ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli, ensuring that the conditioned response is only elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
- Stimulus: Differentiation between conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
- Response: Conditioned response elicited only by the conditioned stimulus.
- Example of Stimulus Discrimination: The dog learns to salivate only at the sound of the specific bell paired with food, and not to similar sounds.
References and Further Reading
Gureghian, D. (2013). Vicarious reinforcement procedures: An analysis of stimulus control and potential side effects. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/213404168.pdf
Honig, W. K., Fetterman, J. G., & Honig, W. K. (2018). Cognitive aspects of stimulus control. New York: Psychology Press.
Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]