The 5 Levels of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system presents an ecological perspective of human development that is made up of 5 levels, with each successive level being a superset of the one preceding it. These levels can be conceptualized visually as a ring of 5 concentric circles expanding outwards from the innermost […]
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Definition of Social Exchange Theory Social exchange theory was founded by George C. Homans (Homans, 1961) and most comprehensively developed by John W. Thibaut, Harold H Kelly, Peter M. Blau, Richard M. Emerson, and Claude Lévi-Strauss. Social exchange theorists generally compare all human interactions with the financial market. Unlike economic exchange, however, the elements of
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Definition of Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance is an internal conflict that occurs in a person when their conflicting beliefs collide. According to Willingham (2014), cognitive dissonance “literally means having mental conflicts” (p. 151). Cognitive dissonance causes a feeling of tension: a person experiences unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, shame, and guilt – and
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Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously. Cognitive Dissonance Examples 1. Unhealthy eating Eating unhealthy food despite knowing its adverse health effects is an example of cognitive dissonance. Such tension arises from believing that one should eat healthy, nutritious food but then eating unhealthy
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Vicarious punishment is the process of learning to avoid certain behaviors by observing others being punished for those behaviors. Examples of Vicarious Punishment 1. In the Classroom If a child sees another student being punished by the teacher for playing with a certain object, or leaving the classroom without permission, then that scenario is a
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Sublimation involves channeling unwanted or disturbing thoughts, impulses or desires into something positive and constructive. This is one of several defense mechanisms proposed by Sigmund Freud (1905/2000). Sublimation in Psychology Examples 1. The Gardener Individuals who experience stress or anxiety may find relief through gardening. By nurturing plants and creating beautiful landscapes, they channel their
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Social Penetration Theory Examples 1. Neighbors Who Share a Love for Gardening 2. College Roommates Adjusting to Campus Life 3. Coworkers Bonding Over a New Project 4. Book Club Members Discovering Shared Interests 5. Gym Buddies Motivating Each Other 6. Parents Meeting at a School Event 7. Travelers Meeting on a Group Tour 8. Volunteers
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Examples of Elaborative Rehearsal 1. Remembering through imagery If you are somebody that struggles with remembering names, an elaborative rehearsal technique would be to associate a new person’s name with an image already retained in your memory. If a person introduces themself as Cliff, you could create an image of a steep rock face to
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Maintenance Rehearsal Examples 1. Number retention A commonly-used example is when you need to memorize a phone number when there is no way of writing it down. Most people struggle to remember the whole number for any length of time, as they’re using maintenance rehearsal memory storage. Only if you repeat the number over and
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Fixed Ratio Schedule Examples 1. Pay Per Piece Workers on an apple farm are paid for every basket of apples they pick. This means their earnings directly depend on their productivity, encouraging them to work efficiently. The more baskets they pick, the more money they make, illustrating a fixed ratio schedule. 2. Rewards for your
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