An achievement test refers to any procedure used to measure the accumulated knowledge or skills of a student in a specific area of study (Cizek, 2004). There are many different types of achievement tests. Standardized achievement tests are the most commonly recognized achievement tests. They are designed to measure academic knowledge in major subject areas […]
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A democratic leadership style is characterized by including employees in the decision-making process. The opinions of all members of the organization are respected and valued, and so their input on a wide rage of issues is welcomed and encouraged. The fundamental idea is that great ideas can come from anyone, at any time. Therefore, each
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Formal Operational Stage Examples The following are examples of formal operational stage milestones. 1. Abstract thinking Children in the formal operational stage can think abstractly. They can ponder hypothetical scenarios and understand theoretical perspectives. They are capable of understanding different philosophical arguments and consider abstract issues such as justice or the role of political systems
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Unethical behaviors are behaviors that we consider to be morally wrong. We can get our understandings of ethics from culture, parents, religion, philosophy, or personal introspection. For millennia, there have been disagreements over what is and isn’t ethical. It differs from person to person and society to society. However, some behaviors tend to be off-limits
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Executive function (EF) refers to mental processes that are involved in the coordination of other cognitive skills. These skills include: attentional control, working memory, emotional regulation, and self-regulation. EF allows us to ignore distractions and concentrate, plan for the future, juggle multiple tasks simultaneously, follow directions and control emotions. Lack of executive functioning plays a
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Non-associative learning is when an individual’s response to a stimulus changes in the absence of new stimuli (or changes in circumstances) that might explain the change in response. We categorize non-associative learning into two categories: habituation and sensitization. Habituation refers to situations where a stimulus no longer causes a strong response; sensitization occurs when the
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Implicit learning is learning that occurs without awareness that it is happening. It simply means that a person can acquire knowledge without the explicit intent or realization of doing so. One of the most common examples of implicit learning is learning through play in childhood. Children’s play is natural and fun, but through the simple
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Systematic observation is a highly structured method of observational research that occurs through the structured observation and coding of a research phenomenon. In this method, one or more trained observers record the target behavior(s) using a predefined coding system to minimize bias. The behavior can be observed in real time, or recorded and coded at
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Higher-order thinking skills are used for advanced cognitive processing of information. It occurs when a person engages in a deep level of processing and manipulating information in the mind. The term “higher-order” is used because these forms of thinking are difficult to perform. It goes beyond just memorizing dates and facts. They are skills necessary
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Peer mediation is when trained students attempt to resolve conflicts themselves between others in the same age group. The process typically involves a pair of students listening to the perspectives of the affected parties and then helping find a commonly agreed-upon resolution. Because student disputes often have to do with rumors, gossip, misunderstandings, and youth
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