50 Paradigms Examples

A paradigm is a set of concepts, thought patterns, or research methodologies that form a particular view of understanding or interpreting the world.

Each paradigm provides a structured and coherent way of thinking, influencing how ideas are organized, validated, and applied.

For example, the scientific method, involving testing variables in controlled settings to determine results, is a central paradigm shaping ways of thinking today. Most people rely on the scientific method as a way of understanding the physical world, and rely on it for everything from building bridges to developing cures for diseases.

A paradigm often goes unquestioned until it’s challenged by new ideas or changing circumstances, potentially leading to a paradigm shift, where an entirely new paradigm supersedes the old one.

For example, the heliocentric model of the universe (which places the sun at the center of the universe) revolutionized human understanding. Before this paradigm shift, the geocentric model was dominant (placing earth at the center). The new heliocentric paradigm changed not just astronomy but affected philosophy, religion, and other fields, altering our perspective of humanity’s place in the universe.

Examples of Paradigms

1. Scientific Paradigms

Scientific paradigms are comprehensive frameworks that encompass a set of concepts, methods, and philosophies within a scientific discipline.

Scientific paradigms shape how scientists observe, understand, and interpret phenomena in the world. Thomas Kuhn, in his influential book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” (1962), introduced the term “paradigm” into the philosophy of science.

Kuhn argues that scientific paradigms guide research and determine what should be observed, the type of questions asked, how they should be structured, and how the results should be interpreted (Kuhn, 1962).

Paradigms in science are crucial as they set the agenda for research within a given field, providing scientists with shared assumptions and a common language.

They dictate acceptable theories, models, and experiments, and establish the standards against which scientific work is evaluated.

Other examples of scientific paradigms include:

2. Sociological Paradigms

Sociological paradigms refer to dominant ways of thinking within the field of sociology, a major academic field in the social sciences.

There are three major sociological paradigms that have dominated sociological thought over the past 130 years.

These are: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactions (Wilson, 2017).

First, we had functionalism, promoted by Durkheim and Merton, which argues that all social institutions have a special role in society, helping to maintain order and balance. It focuses on the effects and social functions of institutions on society – both intended (manifest functions) and unintended (latent functions).

Second, conflict theory emerged, which examined how social institutions don’t necessarily bring about stability, but rather, how they sustain and distribute power, often in ways that negatively affect the marginalized in society. Marxism and feminism are emergent from this paradigm.

Third, we have symbolic interactionism, promoted by Max Weber, which holds that we shouldn’t look at how social institutions shape society, but rather how everyday interactions between individuals shape society, norms, and values from the bottom-up rather than top-down.

Other examples of sociological paradigms include:

3. Economic Paradigms

Economic paradigms refer to worldviews and perspectives on how economies function and, therefore, how they should operate.

Some paradigms, like neoliberal economics, hold that government intervention is inherently harmful because it causes distortions in markets (Becker, 2017). Others, like Keynsian economics. hold that government intervention can help to generate stability in markets. This is based on the idea that the volatility of aggregate demand causes market inefficiencies, and government spending can smooth out these inefficiencies.

Of course, we also have more radical paradigms, such as Marxism, which is based on a social critique of capitalism, and argues for government or collective ownership of the means of production to weed out exploitation that occurs under a market system.

Other examples of economic paradigms include:

4. Educational Paradigms

Educational paradigms refer to perspectives on how learning occurs, and underpin both educational research and modern teaching strategies.

The main divide in educational paradigms has historically been the divide between behaviorism and constructivism (Emery, 2016).

In the early 20th Century, behaviorism in education was dominant. This approach held that learning should occur through rewards, incentives, disincentives, and consequences. It endorsed learning through repetition (known as rote learning) as a key way to instil knowledge in students.

By the mid-20th Century, constructivism emerged as the dominant paradigm. Constructivism held that teachers should encourage cognitive processes – evaluation, mulling over ideas, and higher-order thinking – in order to stimulate learning, rather than simply incentives and consequences. This new paradigm led to a change in teaching strategies, with greater focus on discovery learning, groupwork, and active experimentation.

Other examples of educational paradigms include:

5. Technological Paradigms

Technological paradigms refer to distinct patterns or models in technology development and innovation, shaping how we understand, approach, and utilize technology.

These paradigms are often characterized by key breakthroughs or innovations, and may shift due to new inventions, regulations, or societal changes.

The main divide in technological paradigms has been between centralized (or mainframe) computing and distributed (or personal) computing. Centralized computing, dominant until the mid-20th Century, saw computing resources owned and managed by a single entity. This single entity would provide services and information to multiple users through connected terminals.

There came a shift in technological paradigms with the advent of personal computing in the 1980s. This was characterized by small, relatively inexpensive machines that allowed for individual ownership and control. It started with desktop computers then progressed to laptops and smartphones.

However, the late 20th and early 21st Centuries have seen a merging of these paradigms in the form of cloud computing, which combines the centralization of resources with the personal accessibility and control of distributed computing.

Other examples of technological paradigms include:

Conclusion

A paradigm is a way of thinking that underpins our subsequent thought patterns, research methodologies, and professional practices. They underpin ideologies, worldviews, and have real-life consequences.

Each paradigm provides a structured and coherent way of thinking, and different paradigms emerge as dominant within society at different times in different fields.

References

Becchio, G., & Leghissa, G. (2016). The Origins of Neoliberalism: Insights from economics and philosophy. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Becker, G. S. (2017). Economic theory. New York: Routledge.

Buyya, R., & Dastjerdi, A. V. (2016). Internet of Things: Principles and paradigms. (Eds.). New York: Elsevier.

Diesing, P. (2017). Patterns of discovery in the social sciences. Los Angeles: Routledge.

Emery, F. (2016). Educational paradigms. In The Social Engagement of Social Science, a Tavistock Anthology, Volume 3 (pp. 230-263). Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1st ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.

Wilson, T. P. (2017). Normative and interpretive paradigms in sociology. In Everyday life (pp. 57-79). London: Routledge.