In behavioral psychology, motivating operations are stimuli that change how much we want something and how hard we work to get it. These are commonly used in Applied Behavior Analysis.
Most scholarly definitions of this concept highlight that a motivating operation will affect behaviors in several possible ways:
- Value-altering effects: Increasing or decreasing the effectiveness (value) of a behavior.
- Frequency-altering effects: Increasing or decreasing the frequency of a behavior occurring (also known as behavior-altering effects).
- Probability-altering effects: Increasing or decreasing the probability of a behavior occurring (Cipani & Schock, 2010; O’Heare, 2016; Sarafino, 2011).
On top of this, motivating operations can work in two directions:
- Establishing operations: these are things that make us want something more.
- Abolishing operations: these are things that make us want something less (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2020; Foxall, 2015).
We can sum up these various factors as such:
| Establishing Operations | Abolishing Operations | |
|---|---|---|
| Value-Altering Effects | Increases the effectiveness of the behavior. | Decreases the effectiveness of the behavior. |
| Frequency-Altering Effects | Increases the frequency of the behavior. | Decreases the frequency of the behavior. |
| Probability-Altering Effects | Increases the probability of the behavior occurring. | Decreases the probability of the behavior occurring. |
Examples of Motivating Operations
1. Food Deprivation
Direction: Establishing operation
When a person or animal experiences food deprivation, the value of food as a reinforcer increases, and they are more likely to exhibit behaviors that have previously resulted in receiving food. The greater the food deprivation, the more motivating it will be for people and animals to engage in work or hunting activities to access the food. (As a personal anecdote, I notice this every September when I see many more bears in town seeking food before hibernation – it’s their motivating operation that causes them to risk getting close to humans).
2. Food Satiation
Direction: Abolishing operation
Consuming a sufficient amount of food can decrease its value as a reinforcer, reducing food-seeking behaviors. This is a natural mechanism that helps regulate food intake and maintain energy balance.
3. Task Satiation
Direction: Abolishing operation
Repeatedly performing a task can decrease its value as a reinforcer, reducing the frequency of engagement in that task. This can be observed in both work and learning environments, where variety and breaks are essential to maintain motivation and productivity. For example, if you’ve had the one job for 15 years, you might be so tired of the repetition that you’ll be demotivated by the stimulus.
4. Task Variety
Direction: Establishing operation
Task variety has the opposite effect of task satiation. Introducing variety in tasks can increase their value as reinforcers and the frequency of engagement in those tasks. This can be particularly useful in educational settings to maintain students’ interest and motivation. Balancing task variety and difficulty is essential to match individual capabilities.
5. Access to Preferred Items
Direction: Establishing operation
As teachers and those working with children with autism know, providing access to preferred items or activities can be highly motivating. The ‘carrot’ of a preferred item makes a child more likely to engage in desired behaviors to obtain them. Note, however, that it’s important to identify and rotate preferred items to maintain their effectiveness over time.
6. Social Interaction
Direction: Establishing operation
People who suffer from social anxiety are often encouraged to try to engage in positive social interactions, as this can increase the likelihood of desiring to be in social environments again. This can be used as a CBT strategy in therapy to reinforce the development of social interaction and communication skills.
7. Social Satiation
Direction: Abolishing operation
The opposite of positive social interaction may have demotivating effects. For example, negative or excessive social interaction can decrease the value of social attention as a reinforcer, reducing the likelihood of seeking further interaction. Balancing social time and alone time is essential for maintaining healthy social relationships and well-being.
8. Breaks Between Tasks
Direction: Establishing operation
Offering breaks between tasks can increase the value of rest as a reinforcer and the frequency of task engagement. This can be used to maintain productivity and prevent burnout in both educational and work settings. Scheduling regular breaks is essential for maintaining well-being.
9. Praise and Encouragement
Direction: Establishing operation
Receiving praise and encouragement can increase the likelihood and frequency of positive behaviors. This can be used to reinforce effort and achievement in various settings. Providing genuine and specific praise is important for fostering self-esteem.
10. Praise Satiation
Direction: Abolishing operation
While praise may be motivating, excessive praise can have the reverse effect. Receiving excessive praise can decrease its value as a reinforcer, reducing the impact on behavior. Offering genuine and proportionate praise is important for maintaining its effectiveness.
11. Information Overload
Direction: Abolishing operation
Excessive exposure to information can decrease its value as a reinforcer and reduce information-seeking behaviors. Managing information flow and taking breaks is essential to prevent overwhelm and maintain focus.
12. Resource Abundance
Direction: Abolishing operation
Having abundant access to a resource can decrease its value as a reinforcer and reduce behaviors aimed at obtaining it. This principle is observed in economic behaviors and consumer habits.
13. Routine and Predictability
Effect: Value-altering effects / Probability-altering effects Direction: Abolishing operation
Establishing a routine can decrease the value of variability and novelty as reinforcers, reducing exploratory behaviors. Introducing occasional changes and novel experiences is important for maintaining interest and adaptability.
14. Skill Mastery (Establishing)
Direction: Establishing operation
Achieving mastery in a skill can increase its value as a reinforcer and the likelihood of further engagement in skill-related activities. This can be used to promote continuous learning and self-improvement. Encouraging skill development and providing opportunities for mastery are essential.
15. Skill Mastery (Abolishing)
Direction: Abolishing operation
While some people feel that thrill of doing tasks that they have mastered by going into a flow state, others may feel that achieving mastery in a skill can decrease the value of further skill development. As a result, people with skill mastery may reduce their engagement in the task and decide to no longer take place in skill development activities. Introducing new challenges and learning goals is essential for continuous growth.
16. Reduction of Distractions
Direction: Establishing operation
Minimizing distractions in the environment can increase the likelihood and frequency of focus and task completion. This can be particularly beneficial in learning and work environments to enhance productivity. Creating a quiet and organized space is essential for concentration.
17. Goal Setting
Direction: Establishing operation
Setting clear and achievable goals can increase their value as reinforcers and the likelihood of behaviors directed towards achieving them. This can be used to enhance motivation and drive in both personal and professional settings. Regularly reviewing and adjusting goals is essential for sustained motivation.
18. Environmental Enrichment
Direction: Establishing operation
Enriching the environment with stimulating materials or activities can increase engagement and exploration behaviors. This can be particularly useful in educational and therapeutic settings to foster learning and development. Balancing stimulation and relaxation is important for overall well-being.
19. Time of Day
Direction: Establishing operation
The time of day can alter the value of certain activities as reinforcers, affecting the likelihood of engaging in them. For example, exercise may be more reinforcing in the morning for some individuals, influencing workout routines. Recognizing and utilizing individual preferences can enhance adherence to healthy habits.
20. Anticipation of Reward
Direction: Establishing operation
The anticipation of receiving a reward can increase its value as a reinforcer and the likelihood of behaviors directed towards obtaining it. This can be used to encourage effort and persistence in tasks. Ensuring that rewards are delivered as promised is crucial for maintaining trust and motivation.
21. Social Modeling
Direction: Establishing operation
Observing others engage in a behavior and receive positive outcomes can increase the likelihood of similar behavior. This can be used to promote positive behaviors and skills through role modeling. Providing diverse and positive role models is important for inclusive learning.
22. Novelty
Direction: Establishing operation
Introducing new and novel stimuli or activities can increase their value as reinforcers and the likelihood of exploration and engagement. This can be used to maintain interest and curiosity in learning environments. Balancing novelty and familiarity is essential for comfort and learning.
23. Scarcity
Direction: Establishing operation
Limiting the availability or access to a resource or item can increase its value as a reinforcer and the likelihood of behaviors to obtain it. This principle can be used in marketing and consumer behavior to drive demand. Ethical considerations are important to ensure fairness and avoid exploitation.
24. Choice Offering
Direction: Establishing operation
Offering children choices in activities or rewards can increase their value as reinforcers and the likelihood of engagement. This can empower children, enhance their autonomy, and promote positive behavior. Providing appropriate and balanced choices is essential for effective learning and development.
25. Overjustification Effect
Direction: Abolishing operation
Providing excessive external rewards for an already internally rewarding behavior can decrease the intrinsic motivation to perform that behavior. This is important to consider in educational and workplace settings to maintain intrinsic motivation.
26. Sensory Overstimulation
Direction: Abolishing operation
Excessive exposure to sensory stimuli can decrease their value as reinforcers and reduce sensory-seeking behaviors. Managing the sensory environment is crucial in various settings, including classrooms and therapy centers.
27. Creative Expression Opportunities
Direction: Establishing operation
Providing opportunities for creative expression can increase the value of artistic activities as reinforcers and the likelihood of engagement. This can support the development of creativity, imagination, and emotional expression. Encouraging a variety of creative outlets is essential for holistic development.
28. Peer Interaction
Direction: Establishing operation
Facilitating opportunities for peer interaction can increase the likelihood and frequency of social behaviors. This can be used to reinforce positive social interactions, communication skills, and cooperative play. Creating a supportive and inclusive social environment is crucial for developing social skills.
29. Nature Exposure
Direction: Establishing operation
Exposure to nature and outdoor play can increase the value of outdoor activities as reinforcers and the likelihood of engagement. This can promote physical activity, exploration, and environmental awareness. Ensuring safe and diverse natural experiences is important for fostering a connection with nature.
30. Career Advancement Opportunities
Direction: Establishing operation
Providing opportunities for career advancement can increase their value as reinforcers and the likelihood of employees engaging in behaviors that contribute to professional growth. This can enhance employee motivation, job satisfaction, and retention. Transparent communication about advancement criteria and available opportunities is essential.
31. Employee Recognition Programs
Direction: Establishing operation
Implementing employee recognition programs can increase the likelihood and frequency of positive work behaviors by acknowledging and rewarding achievements. This can foster a positive work environment, boost morale, and encourage continuous improvement. Ensuring that recognition is fair, consistent, and meaningful is crucial.
32. Flexible Work Arrangements
Direction: Establishing operation
Offering flexible work arrangements can increase their value as reinforcers and the likelihood of employees maintaining work-life balance and job satisfaction. This can contribute to employee well-being, productivity, and retention. Clear guidelines and communication are important to manage expectations and maintain accountability.
33. Team Building Activities
Direction: Establishing operation
Organizing team-building activities can increase the likelihood and frequency of positive interpersonal behaviors and collaboration among employees. This can foster a sense of community, improve communication, and enhance team dynamics. Balancing the frequency and type of activities is essential to accommodate diverse preferences and workloads.
34. Skill Development and Training
Direction: Establishing operation
Providing opportunities for skill development and training can increase their value as reinforcers and the likelihood of employees engaging in continuous learning. This can enhance employee competence, adaptability, and job satisfaction. Tailoring training programs to individual needs and organizational goals is important for maximizing benefits.
35. Achievement Recognition
Direction: Establishing operation
Recognizing and celebrating children’s achievements can increase the likelihood of repeated effort and accomplishment. This can foster a sense of competence and boost self-esteem. Providing consistent and genuine recognition is important for nurturing a growth mindset.
Types of Motivating Operations
Unconditioned motivating operations (UMOs) and conditioned motivating operations (CMOs) are two types of motivating operations that differ primarily in whether conditioning is required to establish the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer.
1. Unconditioned Motivating Operations
Unconditioned motivating operations are typically associated with biological needs and do not require learning or conditioning to have an effect.
According to James O’Heare (2016),
“Unconditioned motivating operations (UMO) require no conditioning to establish the effectiveness of the stimulus as a reinforcer.”
Examples of UMOs include the need for food, air, water, sleep, and maintaining an ideal temperature, as these are all fundamental needs that inherently influence behavior.
2. Conditioned Motivating Operations (surrogate, transitive, reflexive)
Unlike UMOs, CMOs are not inherently effective in altering the value of a reinforcer. They become effective through learning and experience. For instance, money is a common example of a conditioned reinforcer, as its value is learned and not biologically inherent.
O’Heare (2016) defines CMOs as below:
“Conditioned motivating operations (CMO) do require conditioning for the operation to establish the effectiveness of the stimulus as a reinforcer.”
While both UMOs and CMOs serve to alter the value of a stimulus as a reinforcer and subsequently influence behavior, UMOs are biologically inherent and do not require conditioning, whereas CMOs are learned through experience and do require conditioning to establish their effectiveness (Steege & Watson, 2009).
Further Reading
Go deeper on the topic of behavior management via behaviorist approaches with my guides:
References
Cipani, E., & Schock, K. M. (2010). Functional Behavioral Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment, Second Edition: A Complete System for Education and Mental Health Settings. Springer Publishing Company.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied Behavior Analysis. Pearson.
Foxall, G. R. (Ed.). (2015). The Routledge Companion to Consumer Behavior Analysis. Taylor & Francis.
O’Heare, J. (2016). Problem Animal Behavior: Functional Assessment & Constructional Management Planning. Dogwise Publishing.
Rojahn, J., Schroeder, S. R., & Hoch, T. A. (2007). Self-Injurious Behavior in Intellectual Disabilities. Elsevier Science.
Sarafino, E. P. (2011). Applied Behavior Analysis: Principles and Procedures in Behavior Modification. Wiley.
Steege, M. W., & Watson, T. S. (2009). Conducting School-Based Functional Behavioral Assessments, Second Edition: A Practitioner’s Guide. Guilford Publications.
Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]